Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses (1969)
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MILLIONS NOW LIVING WILL NEVER DIE
A study of Jehovah's Witnesses
by Alan Rogerson
Constable London First published in 1969
by Constable & Co Ltd, 10 Orange Street, WC2
Copyright © 1969 by Alan Rogerson
All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
by The Anchor Press Ltd, Tiptree, Essex
SBN 09 455940 6 Contents
Introduction page 1
1 The Founder – Charles Taze Russell 5
2 The Second President – Judge Rutherford 32
3 The Modern Organisation, 1932-1968 58
4 The Witnesses' View of History 77
5 The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses 85
6 Doctrines for the End of the World 101
7 Life as a Jehovah's Witness 124
8 Beyond the Congregation 143
9 The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses 154
10 The People Who Believe 174
Postscript 189
Appendix A. Further Details of Pastor Russell's Chronological Beliefs 191
Appendix B. Russell's Time Chart 192
Notes 193
Bibliography 207
Index 213 Introduction
Who are Jehovah's Witnesses? My impression is that most people outside the movement and many in it are unable to answer this question satisfactorily. For most people the only contact with the Witnesses seems to have been a brief encounter on the doorstep where they may have politely or impolitely closed their door, engaged in some furious and fruitless argument or perhaps bought two Witness magazines (never to read them). I have questioned many outside the movement about their impression of the Witnesses and it seems to be one of a 'cranky' but sincere people who persist in calling from house to house at the most awkward times; their history is shrouded in mystery and their beliefs appear to be very peculiar. Whether the Witnesses like it or not (and they do not!) this seems to be their public image in Britain. National newspaper coverage of their movement is small and only concerns the sensational aspects - conscientious objection, mass baptisms and, of course, their refusal to have blood transfusions. While it is true that the Witnesses capture a limited amount of good publicity with their massive conventions, the newspapers on the whole confirm the image of a 'weird religious sect'.
The situation is different in the United States where the movement began. America does not have anything akin to our national church and the religious atmosphere there is more personal and less institutional. America has been the melting-pot for all the religions of the West and it has given birth to many sects of its own - in particular Jehovah's Witnesses who are a part (albeit a small one) of the American way of life. In that land of unusual sects the Witnesses have made their mark by their highly organised methods of preaching and their 'fringe' beliefs such as baptism of adults by total immersion. The Witnesses have points in common with the Christadelphians, the Mormons, Unitarians, Seventh Day Adventists and Pentecostals: they are a non-conformist group who have not yet achieved the respectability of the Methodists or Congregationalists. Despite resemblances with Introduction
other sects, the Witnesses do not believe in interfaith but regard themselves as the sole possessors of the truth. They are fond of referring to the 'jangling' creeds of the rest of Christendom but as far as outsiders are concerned Jehovah's Witnesses are just one more jangle that adds to the din.
In addition to the prevalent ignorance outside the Witness movement there is much ignorance within it. It will soon become obvious to the reader that the Witnesses are an indoctrinated people whose beliefs and thoughts are shaped by the Watchtower Society whose headquarters are in New York. This is not meant to be a melodramatic statement: most modern sects do not thrive on a diet of reason and logic, and the Witnesses are not unique in being told what to believe by those in charge of their organisation.
The result of this mutual ignorance is a huge mental impasse between Jehovah's Witnesses and the rest of the public. In this book I have tried to remedy both of these states of ignorance. For the non-Witness I have presented the facts of the Witnesses' history from its beginnings in 1874 through the periods of office of the three presidents of their Society: Charles Taze Russell, Joseph Franklin Rutherford and Nathan Homer Knorr. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses and finally (and perhaps most important) I have devoted four chapters to the organisational and personal framework of the Witness movement today. For the Witnesses themselves I have quoted numerous facts concerning their history of which most of them are unaware. Many Witnesses, although they do not know it, are in a real state of ignorance about the origins of their organisation and are also in a state of mistaken knowledge about their place in the world and what exactly the world thinks of them. This book is an attempt (as far as I have read the only attempt) to dispel this mutual ignorance and to present to the world and to the Witnesses a complete answer to the question: who are Jehovah's Witnesses?
In order to do this I have consulted all the original records available - especially the books and Watchtowers printed from 1874 onwards. The testimony of these sources is often contradicted by the Witnesses (as well as their opponents) and where possible I have cited and quoted my source of information. I have tried to make my viewpoint unbiased as I have no strong personal feelings for or against the Witness movement. My aim throughout has been to present a full and complete account of the Witnesses incorporating all the significant incidents and facts; where I have discussed certain events or ideas the factual basis for the discussion is also presented so that readers are free to draw their own conclusions.
At least one inevitable bias is present in the text - certain writers have distorted the facts either for or against the movement and it has been necessary to emphasise points that have been deliberately misused in the past.
Consultation of primary sources has revealed that most of the full-length books previously written about the Witnesses are unreliable or at best inadequate. There is a need for an authoritative work in this field and this gap has encouraged me to try to fill it. Of the books written about the Witnesses special mention must be made of four (see the Bibliography for brief details of the others): Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose is the Witnesses' own account of their history and although it suffers from the strong bias present in all the Witnesses' literature, it contains a lot of useful factual information. The Jehovah's Witnesses by H. H. Stroup is an interesting and impressive book from which I have occasionally quoted - unfortunately the book is now quite out-of-date. Jehovah's Witnesses: The New World Society at first sight appears to be a valuable source of information but the author, Marley Cole, highly favours the Witnesses and gives a very misleading account of the movement in which journalistic jargon abounds. The fourth book is the notorious Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave by W. J. Schnell which gives a unique (!) picture of the events during the presidency of Rutherford. I have quoted some interesting parts from this work but I believe Schnell is wrong both in his conception of the Society as it is and in his peculiar theories about its past. More could be said on this subject but I hope that readers of Schnell will take many things he says with a pinch of salt.
The above has, I hope, illustrated the sort of literature the Witness movement attracts: objective but sometimes badly informed works, highly favourable accounts written by Witnesses and virulent attacks written by ex-members of the movement! For myself, I was brought up as a member of this sect but found it impossible to accept the Witnesses' beliefs and left the movement. I believe former membership, however, is a vital prerequisite for adequately describing the Witness movement.
The Founder - Charles Taze Russell
JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES have their origin in the life and beliefs of one man- Charles Taze Russell. In his lifetime Russell was well known as an author, as a preacher and as the 'Pastor' to a group of people known as 'Bible Students'. Many of his followers virtually worshipped him and at his death there was no one who could adequately replace him. Several rival organisations grew up - each claimed to be his successor. One of these groups retained control of his magazine and legal corporation and became the Witness movement of today.
Russell was born of Scottish-Irish parents in Allegheny, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on 16th February 1852. Little is known about his childhood. He was educated first in the state schools and then by private tutors. He did not attend college. His mother died when he was nine and this may have deepened Russell's already keen religious sense. The story is often quoted of his chalking up Bible texts in the street to warn men of the seriousness of Hell - this at the age of fourteen. He was brought up a Presbyterian but changed to the more liberal Congregational Church; he was active there and in the Y.M.C.A. At the age of fifteen he went into partnership with his father, a draper, and together they expanded their business and formed a chain of stores later valued at a quarter of a million dollars. But Russell became dissatisfied with the Congregational Church. He recognised the four attributes of God to be love, justice, wisdom and power and he sought a creed that would harmonise with such a God. He left the Congregational Church and examined in turn the creeds of Christendom and the Oriental faiths. None satisfied him.
Thus during the years 1868 and 1869 Russell was in a state of doubt and perplexity. In his own words:
Brought up a Presbyterian, indoctrinated from the Catechism, and being naturally of an enquiring mind, I fell a ready prey to the logic of infidelity, as soon as I began to think for myself.
But that which at first threatened to be the utter shipwreck of faith in God and the Bible was, under God's providence, over-ruled for good, and merely wrecked my confidence in human creeds and systems of Bible misinterpretations. 1*
Then in 1870 came a turning point. One dark night in Allegheny as Russell walked along the streets he heard singing from a nearby hall. It was a small group of Second Adventists gathered to hear Jonas Wendell speak. 2 'Is it possible,' thought Russell, 'that the handful of people who meet here have something more sensible to offer than the creeds of the great churches?' Russell listened with them and his faith was revived. According to the Witnesses Russell now 'returned to the Bible' and searched for what it really taught. He gathered together social and business friends of like mind and they formed a Bible Study Group. Russell was eighteen and for the next ten years he was to expand his father's business on the one hand and continue his Bible Study Group on the other. Both flourished, but it was the latter that was to occupy his life. In October 1876 he was elected Pastor of his 'congregation' of Bible searchers. 3 During these years of Bible study and contact with Adventist theology Russell came to believe that several primary doctrines of the established Church were not substantiated by Scripture – in particular he believed the Scriptures did not teach a fiery hell. It would, however, be quite wrong to say that these views alienated him from the established Church. He lived in a time of feverish investigation and doctrinal change. Faiths and creeds were bandied about and many new ideas were promulgated within the Church. Russell was simply a Bible Student at this time – he represented no creed or sect but was willing to discuss Biblical ideas with anyone.
There was one thing, however, that Russell was certain about at this time - the imminent Second Advent of Jesus Christ. Speculation on this subject was rife and the latter half of the nineteenth century saw a continual succession of people prophesying a date for Jesus' return and the end of the world. The popular idea was that the few faithful expectant ones would be 'caught up in the clouds' at Jesus' return (1 Thess. 4:17). Russell was interested in Second Adventism and he believed that even the unsuccessful prophets had a place in God's plan. The most *Notes and references begin on p. 193.
prominent of these was William Miller who had taught that Jesus would return in 1843 or 1844. Despite the incorrect prophecy Miller and his followers (Millerites) sparked off a whole chain of new guesses. Russell maintained that while Miller was obviously wrong his movement served a useful purpose, and he wrote in 1890:
While, as the reader will have observed, we disagree with Mr. Miller's interpretations and deductions, on almost every point - viewing the object, as well as the manner and the time, of our Lord's coming, in a very different light - yet we recognise that movement as being in God's order, and as doing a very important work in the separating, purifying, refining, and thus making ready, of a waiting people prepared for the Lord.4
Russell even went as far as to interpret the parable of the ten virgins (Matthew 25:1,2) as referring to the Miller movement and later developments: 'The movement noted by our Lord in this parable corresponds exactly to one which began with the "Miller movement" and which is still in progress.' This parable and its interpretations were to figure often in Russell's writings. He believed he lived in the crucial age for the return of Christ but he disagreed with Miller and the Second Adventists concerning the manner and object of Christ's return. Russell explained his views in a booklet published at his own expense in 1873: The Object and Manner of Our Lord's Return. These differences will be discussed below.
In the Witnesses' 'official' history Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose and also in Faith on the March the authors evidently wish to emphasise the differences between Russell and the Adventists - how they were wrong and he was right. In fact nearly all of Russell's beliefs, and certainly all the important ones, were thought up by other people - most of them Adventists. This will become plain as we study Russell's religious development.5
Russell was still carrying on his father's trade and it was on a business trip to Philadelphia in the close of 1875 that he read a copy of the magazine Herald of the Morning in which the editor, N. H. Barbour, claimed that Christ had returned invisibly in 1874. Russell's interest was aroused; he wrote to Barbour, who was in Rochester, New York, and suggested that they meet. Barbour came to Philadelphia (expenses paid by Russell) and convinced him that Jesus had returned invisibly in 1874.
Barbour's strange opinion was based on the translation of the Greek word parousia in Matthew 24:3 where the disciples asked Jesus: 'What shall be the sign of thy coming [= parousia].' Barbour had been convinced that Jesus' return was due in 1874 and when this apparently did not happen another Adventist, B. W. Keith, pointed out that parousia might be translated presence and not coming. Barbour seized on this idea and inferred that Jesus' invisible presence had started in 1874. Russell accepted this explanation and both he and Barbour expected that Jesus would shortly collect together the faithful few and take them up to heaven. Russell was keen to publish these findings and inform as many people as possible, telling them of the second presence. Barbour pointed out that his own printing press in New York was worn out and he had little money. Also he said: 'The subscribers to the Herald of the Morning are discouraged because 1874 has passed and the Lord didn't come. Some of them lived in 1844 with Miller and the Lord didn't come then, and now they've become discouraged.' 6
Russell was at an important turning point. Up to then his religious beliefs had been a 'spiritual hobby' but now he decided to use his substantial fortune to finance the advertising of the Second Advent. He gave Barbour money to print a book The Three Worlds or Plan of Redemption which set out their beliefs - this was published in 1877. Russell paid for new printing equipment and threw himself wholeheartedly into the printing and publishing of Herald of the Morning as associate editor to Barbour. As Russell said:
I at once saw the special times in which we live have an important bearing upon our duty and work as Christ's disciples; that since we are living in the time of the Harvest the Harvest work should be done.7
By 'the Harvest work' Russell meant spreading the message that Jesus' second presence had begun in 1874. Those who accepted this belief were the 'saints' who would be carried off to heaven in glory. It is interesting to note that the pattern of the Second Advent was the same for all the Adventists. Russell and Barbour differed only in the date and the significant matter of an invisible presence instead of a visible coming. The other matters - the harvest work' preceding the setting up of the Kingdom of Heaven, and the glorification of the saints - were derived from Miller.
Russell and Barbour felt certain that the 'glorification' would occur on a particular date (this was also Miller's belief) and they searched the Bible to find a clue to this date. They believed that at Jesus' first Advent he had preached for three and a half years after baptism and then he had returned to heaven (after the crucifixion). It therefore seemed 'logical' that Jesus' second Advent, or presence, should last exactly three and a half years, at the end of which time the Kingdom of God would be set up and the faithful ones changed to heavenly glory in the twinkling of an eye (1 Corinthians 15:51, 52). As Jesus had returned in the autumn of 1874 (according to Barbour's calculations) they felt sure that the glorification must occur three and a half years later, in 1878.8
The critical year, 1878, came and went despite the suspense suffered by Russell, Barbour and their followers. The disappointment took the two leaders in different ways. According to A. H. Macmillan, Russell 'did not for a moment feel cast down' and he 'realised that what God had so plainly declared must some time have a fulfilment'. Some gathered in white robes on the crucial night expecting to be taken to heaven, but Russell was not amongst them. What A. H. Macmillan fails to say is that Russell did believe the kingdom had been set up -but invisibly. Instead of the saints being changed immediately, Russell concluded that they would be changed on their natural death after 1878. Those saints who were already dead before 1878 were 'spiritually resurrected' and invisibly transferred to heaven in that year! Russell wrote:
The year 1878 being thus indicated as the date when the Lord began to take unto himself his great power, it is reasonable to conclude that there the setting up of his Kingdom began, the first step of which would be the deliverance of his body, the Church, among whom the sleeping members are to take precedence... Our Lord, the appointed King, is now present, since October 1874, and the formal inauguration of his kingly office dates from April 1878 A.D.: and the first work of the Kingdom, as shown by our Lord, in his parables and prophecy (the gathering of 'his elect'), is now in progress. 10
Russell held to this interpretation of 1878 to his death but Barbour was disappointed and discouraged when 1878 passed with no visible heavenly sign.
A rift grew between the two men and in that same year Barbour wrote an article for the Herald in which he denied the doctrine of the ransom sacrifice, as Russell knew it. This was a great shock to Russell, for this doctrine was central to his faith. He promptly wrote an article in reply in a later issue of the Herald and the readers were confused by a series of contradictory articles for and against the ransom. The situation became intolerable and Russell withdrew his support for the Herald of the Morning. He did not in fact make any claim for the printing equipment which he had paid for; instead he purchased new printing presses in 1879 and decided that henceforth he would devote all his time and money to explaining his doctrines and the return of Christ without the aid of Barbour. In July 1879 Russell printed 6,000 copies of the first edition of Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence 11 - his new mouthpiece, with himself and five others as contributors. In the same year, at one of his Bible Study Groups, Russell met Maria Frances Ackley and three months later they were married. Charles Taze Russell now began a new life.
WATCHTOWER YEARS, 1879-1900
In 1879 Russell was at the beginning of a long and turbulent career. What exactly did he think? He believed that there was no trinity and no immortal soul, that hell was no more than the grave - a completely insensible state. More important he believed that the Bible pointed to the age he was living in - and ipso facto was pointing to him as the chief advertiser of these truths. Russell believed that he and his Bible Student followers were being led by God to the rediscovery of Biblical truths. This caused many people to accuse Russell of 'appalling egotism', 12 but was he really conceited? In appearance, behaviour and attitude he was anything but a braggart. Despite the hero-worship that was lavished on him he did not vaunt himself, even through his own magazine. This much is obvious from reading through the Watch Towers; in Zion's Watch Tower, 1st September 1900, Russell wrote:
We have frequently been urged to publish the Editor's picture either in the Dawns 13 or in these columns: but have as persistently refused. It is the truth rather than its servant that should be honoured and proclaimed.
The Founder - Charles Taze Russell
A hint as to why so many people have accused Russell of conceit and egotism is contained in the above quotation. Russell assumes he is the 'servant of the Truth' and hence in a privileged and important position. Even though Russell 'claimed nothing of himself' he claimed a great deal for the message he preached; not unnaturally his opponents called him conceited when he claimed divine authority!
This apparent paradox has led to much controversy. In Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose the Witnesses say: 'He made no claim of a special revelation from God but held that it was God's due time for the Bible to be understood. 14
Not only is this rash statement contradicted by Russell himself on several occasions but the apologia seems extreme even by modern Witness standards. Presumably their intention in that book is to paint the best possible picture for newcomers - certainly their other books (for mature Witnesses) claim a little more for Russell. I quote below a key passage that Russell's enemies seized on to 'prove' his egotism. Russell wrote:
Not only do we find that people cannot see the divine in studying the Bible by itself, but we see, also, that if anyone lays the 'Scripture Studies' [his own works!] aside, even after he has used them, after he has become familiar with them, after he has read them for ten years - if he then lays them aside and ignores them and goes to the Bible alone, though he has understood his Bible for ten years, our experience shows that within two years he goes into darkness. On the other hand, if he had merely read the 'Scripture Studies' with their references and had not read a page of the Bible as such, he would be in the light at the end of two years, because he would have the light of the Scriptures.15
Russell also compared himself to a 'Combination Timelock' which opens up the divine secrets - only in his time and by himself; and he referred to his writings as 'the Divinely provided light upon God's word'. 16 We are therefore forced to conclude that Russell was not personally conceived but the sincere claims he made for his beliefs were anything but modest.
In 1879, however, he had but a small following in a country full of 'Pastors', sects and cults, in addition to the major Churches. At this time Pastor Russell and his Bible Students were still searching for the complete truth. They were not an established organisation, their magazine was founded to discuss Biblical views.
The other five regular contributors were A. D. Jones (an employee in Russell's store), J. H. Paton, W. I. Mann, B. W. Keith, and H. B. Rice. In addition, Mrs. Russell frequently contributed articles. At first the magazine was published monthly, but in 1892 it changed to twice-monthly as it is today.
In the early 1880's Zion's Watch Tower was just one of many similar magazines being printed and distributed in America. There was rivalry and often controversy between their editors many attempted to increase their own circulation at the expense of the others. Before joining Russell, H. B. Rice had been editor of a magazine called The Last Trump which lack of money closed down. Russell shrewdly took on Rice and at the same time sent the new Zion's Watch Tower to the former subscribers of The Last Trump. Of the original contributors, several eventually 'defected'. For instance, J. H. Paton was at first a prolific writer to Zion's Watch Tower but finally he wrote a book contradicting Russell and the latter was forced to warn his readers not to have anything more to do with Paton.17 'Brother' A. D. Jones moved to New York in 1881 and there started his own paper Zion's Day Star. Russell magnanimously recommended this magazine at first but was hastily obliged to reverse his opinion when Jones denied the ransom doctrine and actually set up in opposition to Russell.
In fact Pastor Russell had the unpleasant task of holding his own in a series of running fights with neighbouring periodicals. In 1883 there began a long dispute with The World's Hope and in the following year The Millenarian began a controversy with Russell. This was particularly regrettable as Pastor Russell's object was not petty strife but to inform as many people as possible of the Second Advent. In this he was not unsuccessful, during 1879-1880 thirty congregations (or ecclesias as they were called) were set up in the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, Delaware, Ohio and Michigan. These ecclesias were not founded by Russell. They grew out of groups of people who had read Zion's Watch Tower, agreed with it, and decided to meet together for further Bible study and mutual benefit. They were in touch with Pastor Russell, of course, and there was a strong bond between him and them. He was their 'honorary Pastor' although each ecclesia elected its own 'elders' who were the spiritual and administrative heads. This system was modelled on the Congregational Church and was in operation up to the time of Russell's death.
Members of these ecclesias addressed one another as 'brother' and 'sister', a practice still followed by Jehovah's Witnesses today. They held regular meetings, read and discussed Zion's Watch Tower and distributed tracts. Those who travelled abroad often took the 'Towers and tracts with them to give to interested people - from this grew early centres of interest outside the United States. From 1880 to 1884, for instance, one million copies of the tract Food For Thinking Christians were distributed in America and London.
In 1884 Russell formed a legal corporation to handle the increased amount of work that stemmed from his new following. The corporation was called Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society and it was granted its charter on 13th December 1884. 18 Pastor Russell was the President (a post he held until his death), his wife was Secretary/Treasurer. Altogether seven directors and three officers were elected. Gradually Russell and his followers were becoming more rigid in their beliefs and organisation. In Zion's Watch Tower of October 1883, Russell admitted that his movement could be called a sect, unlike the modern-day Witnesses who deny that they can be described as a sect, cult or religion. 19 Most of Pastor Russell's supporters were keen students of the Bible, but they had no criterion of activity. They believed in disseminating their message but they thought their primary duty was individual character development. Each Bible Student, as one of the saints, was concerned with preparation for the heavenly calling by Bible study, prayer, meditation and the improvement of his character in everyday life.
While Russell approved of this spiritual procedure his business sense led him to examine the most efficient ways of spreading his message. He had advanced as an ideal that all should help in distributing his literature, but in the April 1881 edition of Zion's Watch Tower he took more practical steps with an article entitled 'WANTED - 1,000 Preachers'. Those responding to the article were the first of the colporteurs (now called pioneers) who worked almost full time preaching and distributing Zion's Watch Tower. By the late 1880's Russell himself was devoting all of his time to the study of the Bible and the administration of his fast-growing movement. In 1889 a new building was finished in Pittsburgh to house the printing works and to be the office centre for Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society.
Russell was an astute businessman. By the time he was thirty he had expanded his father's one store into a chain of five which he then sold for a quarter of a million dollars (present equivalent, about a million dollars). This business acumen was useful to Russell not only in business; read his instructions for selling his Bible literature in 1887:
These circulars can be sent out by the hand of trusty boys or girls, whom you can employ. And if you cannot visit all your neighbors yourself to show the book and take their orders, these same boys or girls could do it (Girls would generally succeed best). You could pay them a commission out of each day's sales so much on each copy disposed of. Do not spend more than 2 or 3 minutes at each house, and if they do not readily subscribe say to them: I do not accept the money now, but merely take your orders, but be sure to have the money ready by ? day-fixing a time when your canvass of the town will be complete. You can safely say too, 'When this book is in the hands of all your neighbors and they are talking about its contents, you will have more than 25 cents worth of curiosity to know as well as they, of its teachings and explanations. Then I will be gone and you will feel ashamed to borrow when you can now purchase for the paltry sum of 25 cents. You can sell the book for waste paper after reading it and surely not lose much.[20]
Practically every major device of modern advertising is hinted at in the above paragraphl Russell was not slow to utilise every means to disseminate his message. In 1891 he set off on the first of many overseas tours to this end. He travelled through Ireland, Scotland, Russia, Turkey and so on, giving lectures and talks in each country. In 1893 he organised the first large National Convention for his followers at Chicago from August 20-24th. There were 360 colporteurs present at this Convention - a far cry from Russell's '1,000 wanted'. Their numbers were not always on the increase (in 1896 Russell commented on a decrease in the colporteur ranks).
As well as colporteurs Russell conceived the idea of 'Pilgrims' paid representatives of the Watch Tower Society who visited the local ecclesias to help and encourage the brethren (these are now called circuit servants). Three Pilgrims were sent out in 1897, twenty-five in 1905 and by 1917 there was a total of ninety-three The Founder - Charles Taze Russell
Pilgrims travelling from congregation to congregation. 21 In these ways Pastor Russell laid the organisational foundation on which Jehovah's Witnesses have built their modern 'New World Society'.
Up to the close of the nineteenth century Russell's personality and beliefs had attracted a small band of adherents, most of them in the United States. Incomplete figures for the Memorial gathering to commemorate Christ's death suggest that Russell's following in 1899 was about 2,500. What was it that attracted these people? Certainly Pastor Russell himself inspired confidence:
His natural charm, his seeming broad-mindedness, his devotion to the Bible, his extreme claims, all won him devotees in the early years. Russell was always willing to meet people and to talk with them. On his lengthy speaking tours about the country he willingly posed for photographers, and thus left behind him a group of photographs which date the various stages of his life and career. He was a smallish man, 22 thin and saintly in appearance, His demeanor, according to all available reports, was ascetic. In later life, his long white hair gave him the appearance of a modern patriarch. In speech, both public and private, his professionalized style marked him as a 'spell-binder'. 23
Russell attracted admiration and worship from many of his supporters. One of them, P. S. L. Johnson, said:
He certainly was a SCHOLAR in the true sense of that term. . He was deeply versed in history. . His writings show that he was at home in the perplexing questions of industry, economics, sociology, capital and labour. The realms of philosophy were deeply explored by him, and he was an expert in theoretical and practical psychology and phrenology. . and when other theologians will have been discarded, he will be recognised as a standing authority in this the greatest of all sciences [theology].24
While in Zion's Watch Tower 1st May 1917 it was said that 'Not since the Apostle Paul has there lived in the world a greater and better man than Pastor Russell'.
Most of Russell's followers, however, would claim that it was his message that attracted them. Many described their feelings of joy and satisfaction on first reading Russell's works, akin to the immediate and complete conversion of Paul on the road to Damascus. Although Russell's writings hardly seem to be admirable today, it is quite credible that his direct prose style, his forthright beliefs and his detailed discussions of Politics and Economics impressed his contemporaries.
Russell's chief mouthpiece was Zion's Watch Tower, but he also wrote an important series of six books - starting in 1886 with The Divine Plan of the Ages. Previous to this Russell had written several tracts, and two books: Three Worlds or Plan of Redemption (1887) and Tabernacle Shadows of the 'Better Sacrifices'. The latter was written in 1881 as a reply to Barbour's interpretations of the Hebrew Tabernacle, which Russell regarded as misleading.
'THE MILLENNIUM DAWNS' OR 'STUDIES IN THE SCRIPTURES'
In order to clarify his position, and set out his beliefs in full, Pastor Russell published The Divine Plan of the Ages in 1886. Six million copies of this book were sold during the next forty years. Russell proceeded to write a series of books of which this was just the first. Originally called The Millennium Dawns, the name of the series was changed in 1904 to Studies in the Scriptures. The complete series was:
The Time is at Hand (1889) 371 pages
Thy Kingdom Come (1891) 384 pages
The Battle of Armageddon (1897) 660 pages
The Atonement between God and Man (1899) 498 pages
The New Creation (1904) 738 pages
The name of Volume 4 was later changed to The Day of Vengeance (the reason was that people thought the original title was that of a novel!). Russell intended to write a seventh volume (seven was a Biblical number for completeness). This would uncover the mysteries of Revelation. Later in life he came to the conclusion that he had not got 'the key to unlock the secrets of Revelation' and it was left to his successors to publish the seventh volume.
What were the books like? On the whole their tone is one of reason and restraint although there is no hiding Russell's conviction that he and his followers were the chosen of God. There are few attempts at grandiloquence and the style is factual and down to earth if not a little tedious. This cannot be said of Russell's conclusions, for the greater part of all his books is taken up with two things: extensive and elaborate Bible chronology applied to Russell's time, and the interpretation of Biblical events also to apply to his time.
Russell was much concerned with times and dates and charts - his books are full of them. In addition to all this, he discussed at length social and political issues (tying them in with Bible prophecy) and he was fond of debating the exact meaning of the original Greek and Hebrew words in the Bible. It was later publicly revealed that he had no expert knowledge in this field.
The most surprising thing about the six volumes was their lack of discussion of basic doctrines - less than sixty of the 3,000 pages were devoted to discussing the trinity, immortality of the soul and hell-fire. The second volume contained no doctrinal material at all; typical chapter headings in this book were: 'The Seventy Weeks of Daniel's Prophecy - Events Foretold to Transpire Within that Time - The Time of Messiah's Advent Indicated - What are Gentile Times? - "The Times of Restitution of All Things" Foretold by Moses - The Date of Their Beginning Indicated' - and so on. (One last example: in the first volume Russell devoted only two paragraphs in the whole book to showing that the idea of eternal torment was unscriptural.) I wish to discuss in detail the two main themes in Russell's life and literature, these were the real core of his beliefs and were the dominating topics of conversation for Russell and all his followers. Knowing these two aspects of Russell's world-view we are better equipped to understand the development of the movement after his death, and indeed much of present-day Witness theology.
Pastor Russell and Bible Chronology
Most Jehovah's Witnesses today know little or nothing of the 'prophecies' of Pastor Russell but all of them are convinced of one thing: they believe that Pastor Russell correctly predicted the heavenly establishment of the Kingdom of God in 1914. In their own account Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose 25 they say this about Russell's opinion of 1914: 'Although this was still decades before the First World War, it is surprising how accurately the events that finally took place were actually foreseen.' This is nonsense. Below are details of Russell's opinions on 1914 and other dates. I have quoted at length from the original sources as As we have already seen, Russell believed that Jesus' second coming, or presence, had occurred invisibly in 1874 and that the Kingdom of God had been set up, also invisibly, in 1878.
Russell used two lines of argument to substantiate the date 1874.
they are not easy to obtain, and this lack allows statements such as the above to go unchallenged.
(1) Russell believed that the Jewish nation would be restored to God's favour in 'the last days'. This view was based on certain texts such as Matthew 5:18: 'For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled.' (See also Hebrews 10:1; 8:5, Colossians 2:17 and especially Acts 3:19-21.) The Israelites had been enjoined to celebrate every fiftieth year as a Jubilee Year (Leviticus 25:10, 15). Russell was captivated by the idea of a greater fulfilment which involved a period of waiting, leading up to the greater Jubilee Year, which Russell thought must be the Millennium. 26 The Israelites worked out their Jubilee Year so that it occurred after 7 × 7=49 years, giving a cycle of fifty years. In the higher fulfilment Russell multiplied cycles together to obtain the waiting interval. Thus the time between Jubilee Years in the higher (antitypical) fulfilment is 50 × 50=2,500 years. Russell now had to determine when this period of 2,500 years started - the date when it finished would then give the beginning of the antitypical Jubilee Year, the Millennium! Here, in Russell's own words, is the argument:
Fifty times fifty years gives the long period of twenty-five hundred years (50× 50 equals 2,500), as the length of that great cycle, which began to count when Israel's last typical Jubilee ended, and which must culminate in the great antitypical Jubilee. We know that such a cycle must have begun to count where the type ceased; because, if not one jot or tittle of the Law could pass away without a fulfilment at least commencing, then the Jubilee type, which was far more than a jot or tittle, indeed a large and important feature of the Law, would not have been permitted to pass away until the right time for its antitype to begin . . . the last of the typical Jubilees, occurred just nineteen years before the beginning of the seventy years of desolation of the land while they [the Jews] were in captivity in Babylon, and nine hundred and fifty years after entering Canaan.[27]
There, then, just nineteen years before the 'seventy years of desolation' of their land, at the close of their last Jubilee - the nineteenth - the great cycle of 2,500 years began to count; and it becomes The Founder - Charles Taze Russell
a very simple matter to reckon where those 2,500 years terminated, and consequently where the twenty-five hundredth year, the beginning of the great antitypical Jubilee, began. . . . Thus, the year which began October 1874 was the 2,500th year, but since the antitype is larger than the type - 1,000 years instead of one year - 1875 (beginning Oct. 1874), instead of being a Jubilee year was the first of the 1,000 years of Jubilee.28
The whole of Chapter 6 in Volume 2 is taken up with an involved and prolix 'proof' that 1874 has this Biblical significance. Russell goes on to infer what should happen in 1874:
But what are the reasonable conclusions from these Bible teachings? Let us consider what must follow, from the standpoint of reason, and then see if any other scriptures either warrant or contradict those conclusions. First we infer that when the 'Times of Restitution' are due to begin, the presence of the Great Restorer is also due. This would be a very reasonable inference, but it amounts to much more than inference when it is endorsed by the Apostle's positive inspired statement, that When the [appointed] times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord [Jehovah] . . . he shall send Jesus Christ, which before was preached unto you, whom the heaven must retain until the times of restitution of all things, which God hath spoken by the mouth of all his holy prophets since the world began. - Acts 3:19-21.29
Russell is saying, at great length, that Jesus must return in 1874. This is the first major justification for the date; the second arrives at 1874 by an even more roundabout method.
(2) It was, of course, Barbour and not Russell who first expounded the above justification for 1874. Similarly the second line of reasoning was not originated by Russell but by a Mr. Bowen in England. 30 He noticed that using the exact chronology of the Bible it was possible to calculate how many years had passed since the creation of Adam. Bowen took the Bible figures literally and arrived at 4,129 B.C. 31 for this event. He believed that each of the creation 'days' were not literal twenty-four-hour periods but lasted 7,000 years. The significance of this is that the last 'day' (on which God rested) actually lasts for 7,000 years starting from the creation of Adam. The last 1,000 years of this 'day' Bowen thought must be the Millennium. This is, of course, almost pure conjecture (although Bowen and Russell offered tenuous Biblical support). It sounds as though it was worked out by hindsight - as 6,000 years from Adam's creation brings us to the date 1872!
Russell believed that the Millennium therefore started in the year 1873 - in his own words:
In this chapter we present the Bible evidence that indicates that six thousand years from the creation of Adam were complete with A.D. 1872 and hence that, since A.D. 1872, we are chronologically entered upon the seventh thousand or the Millennium - the forepart of which, the 'Day of the Lord', the 'day of trouble', is to witness the breaking into pieces of the kingdoms of this world and the establishment of the Kingdom of God under the whole heavens. 32
The apparent discrepancy between 1872, the end of the 6,000 years, and 1874, the date of Christ's second presence, is conveniently explained by Russell:
How is it that the exact Bible Chronology points to October 1872 as the beginning of the seventh thousand year, or Millennium, while the Jubilee Cycles show October 1874 to be the date of our Lord's return and the beginning of restitution times? . . . It will be remembered that the reckoning of chronology began with the creation of Adam, and that some time was spent by Adam and Eve before sin entered. Just how long we are not informed, but two years would not be an improbable estimate. . . . The six thousand years in which God has permitted evil to dominate the world, prior to the beginning of the great seventh or sabbatic thousand, or Times of Restitution, dates from the entrance of sin into the world. And since the Times of Restitution began with October 1874, that must be the end of the six thousand years' reign of Sin; and the difference between that and the date shown in the chronology from Adam's creation represents the period of sinlessness in Eden, which really belongs to the reign of righteousness.33
Russell never changed his opinion that Jesus had returned in 1874 and this remained the major time-prophecy as far as he was concerned. I quote in Appendix A his beliefs concerning five other dates in the late nineteenth century.
Pastor Russell and the Year 1914
As early as the 1880's Pastor Russell came to the conclusion that the year 1914 marked the end of the 'Gentile Times' - his reasoning was almost identical with that used by Witnesses today (see the doctrinal section). Despite what the Witnesses say, however, Russell did not believe that 1914 marked the establishment of the The Founder - Charles Taze Russell
Kingdom of God in heaven (for that had happened in 1878) and he certainly did not believe that 1914 would be followed by another generation of conflict without any intervention by God. What then did Russell think would happen in 1914? He expected that, at last, the saints would be glorified, they would be carried up to heaven to rule with Jesus. At the same time God would cause the break-up of all earthly kingdoms and would substitute theocratic rule during the rest of the Millennium. Russell believed that God would restore mankind on earth to perfection - he would not destroy them in a 'Battle of Armageddon':
... but when God's Word and plan are viewed as a whole, these will all be found to favour the view ... that Christ comes before the conversion of the world, and reigns for the purpose of converting the world. They believe that God will do no more than choose this Church, while we find the Scriptures teaching a further step in the divine plan-a restitution for the world, to be accomplished through the elect Church.34
In 1916 Russell wrote a series of Forewords for the 'Studies' in which he admitted that his prophecies concerning 1914 had not been fulfilled, for example:
The author acknowledges that in this book he presents the thought that the Lord's saints might expect to be with Him in glory at the ending of the Gentile Times. This was a natural mistake to fall into, but the Lord overruled it for the blessing of His people. 35
Russell's thoughts concerning 1914 are clearly set out in The Divine Plan of the Ages. The Elect would be glorified to heaven, other faithful ones would occupy subsidiary heavenly positions, while the remainder of mankind on earth with the resurrected millions would revert to Edenic perfection. It is quite clear from the quotation below that Russell thought in 1889 that the Battle of Armageddon (Revelation 16) had already begun and that it would end in 1915:
In view of this strong Bible evidence concerning the Times of the Gentiles, we consider it an established truth that the final kingdoms of this world, and the full establishment of the Kingdom of God, will be accomplished near the end of A.D. 1915. . . True, it is expecting great things to claim, as we do, that within the coming twenty-six years all present governments will be overthrown and dissolved. . . Be not surprised, then, when in subsequent chapters Millions Now Living Will Never Die
we present proofs that the setting up of the Kingdom of God is already begun, that it is pointed out in prophecy as due to begin the exercise of power in A.D. 1878, and that the 'battle of the great day of God almighty' (Revelation 16:14), which will end in A.D. 1915, with the complete overthrow of earth's present rulership, is already commenced. . . The beginning of the early phase of the Kingdom in the end of A.D. 1914 will, we understand, consist wholly of the resurrected holy ones of olden time,-from John the Baptizer back to Abel.36
There are many similar quotations from Russell's works. See Appendix B for a time chart summarising his 'prophetic' dates. The main conclusion one can draw from all this is that Russell (obviously) was obsessed by time prophecies, most of which were wrong. Modern opinion amongst Jehovah's Witnesses is that he was right about 1914, but this is based on ignorance of his writings.
Pastor Russell and Biblical Interpretation
Jehovah's Witnesses have inherited Russell's predilection for elaborate interpretations of all the Bible stories. Russell and many of his contemporaries assumed that most of the Bible had a 'higher fulfilment' and they spent much of their time looking for this and debating who or what was represented by a Bible character or incident. Russell's conclusions were reasonably consistent and often very complicated. They were, nevertheless, arbitrary, and many of the present-day Witness interpretations differ from Russell's. Here are five examples:
$
\begin{array}{l} (2 \text {Kings} 9) \mathrm {J e z e b e l} = \mathrm {T h e R o m a n C a t h olic} \\ \mathrm {(M a t t h e w} 2 5) \mathrm {T h e F i v e} \\ \mathrm {F o o l i s h V i r g i n s} = \mathrm {T h e M i l l e r m o v e m e n t} \quad \mathrm {V o l. 3 , p . 9 1}. \\ (\mathrm {D a n i e l} 8) \mathrm {T h e L i t t l e} \\ \mathrm {H o r n} = \mathrm {T h e R o m a n E m p i r e} \quad \mathrm {V o l. 3 , p . 2 7}. \\ (\mathrm {R e v e l a t i o n} 2 0) \mathrm {F a l s e} \\ \mathrm {P r o p h e t} = \mathrm {T h e P r otestant Chur c h} \\ \mathrm {Federation} \quad \mathrm {V o l. 4 , p . v i i i}. \\ (\mathrm {L u k e} 1 6) \mathrm {R i c h M a n} = \mathrm {T h e J e w i s h N a t i o n} \quad \mathrm {V o l. 5 , p . 3 7 6}. \\ \end{array}
$
These, and many more stories, are interpreted differently by the Witnesses today. For instance, both Jezebel and the rich man The Founder - Charles Taze Russell
now picture the clergy class. It has been said of Russell that he took a drop of doctrine and diluted it to a sea of verbosity - not only was he long-winded in his books, but he was proved wrong on many issues. The Witnesses, who have adopted a new set of dates and Bible interpretations, claim that the 'light was shining but dimly' in these early years. They would also like us to believe, however, that Russell was amazingly right about predicting World War 1 in 1914! As Russell's works are difficult to obtain outside the movement, and discouraged inside, this incorrect assertion is not easy to disprove.37
THE WAITING YEARS, 1900-1914
At the turn of the century Russell and his Bible Students were patiently awaiting their glorification in 1914.38 Pastor Russell was now emerging from relative obscurity, as the leader of a small and radical religious sect, to quite a prominent place in American religious affairs. Russell's sermons had nationwide newspaper publicity as the ideas in them were alien to the other Christian denominations. He had always been opposed to the Catholic church but at the start of the new century he found himself in opposition to all the Protestant churches too. His own failure to find satisfaction amongst the established churches led him to believe that they were actually instruments of the devil. Russell was never a vindictive man but he believed the churches were wrong and it was his duty to say so. Nearly all the 660 pages of Volume 4 of Studies in the Scriptures are used by Russell to fulfil this duty. First he defines the area of his attack:
As we proceed to set forth our understanding of the symbols of the Revelation, we wish to state most emphatically that we are saying nothing whatever against godly Christians anywhere, at any time, whether in any church or out of any church. We have nothing to say respecting people. We discuss PRINCIPLES, DOCTRINES, ALWAYS; individuals, NEVER! God has not commissioned us to discuss people; it is ours to discuss His Word. 39
and then he gets down to details, for example, discussing Revelation 16:13:
The Dragon, then, symbolises the Roman power, represented by the civil power in the world. The Beast is the Papal system of government. . . The False Prophet, or Image of the Beast, we understand to mean the Protestant Federation of Churches. etc. 40 Millions Now Living Will Never Die
While this verbal battle was getting under way, Russell continued to put his money into the Watch Tower Society to help expand its influence. In 1900 the first 'foreign' branch office was opened in London. Branches in Germany (1903) and Australia (1904) followed. Pamphlets were now being printed in seven languages and this widespread publicity inevitably had its effect. More and more people left the churches to join up with Russell:
To assist them in their resignation and to provide a further testimony to those in the Church systems responsible for removing their names from the Church rolls, specially printed 'Withdrawal letters' were provided. 41
Three successive conventions were held in the U.S.A. in 1903 and Russell set off on his second tour of Europe in the summer. On his return he engaged in a debate with Dr. E. L. Eaton - the champion of the Protestant Evangelical Alliance. The debate started on 18th October in Carnegie Hall, Pittsburgh, and according to the Witnesses 'on the whole Pastor Russell came off best'. Russell was a reasonable and convincing speaker with a great depth of Biblical knowledge. He thought of himself as waging a war against the rising forces of Evolution, Spiritualism and Higher Criticism, in addition to his battle with the clergy. His opponents, however, believed he was 'being used of the evil one to subvert the Truth of God'. It was said that 'no infidel writer, such as Hume, Voltaire or Ingersoll ever suffers such ruthless attacks as have been made against Pastor Russell'. Certainly Russell was a celebrated, or notorious, figure of his day. 'Undoubtedly he was photographed more times than any American, save perhaps Mr. Coolidge' (the President of the United States).
RUSSELL'S TRIBULATIONS
It is misleading to give the impression that at this time Russell was striding forward from success to success. There was an overall increase in his following but this itself brought difficulties. The people who associated with him were often ambitious, and many lacked his saintly demeanour. There was always a certain amount of quarrelling and dissension within the organisation and sometimes this was even directed against Pastor Russell. From 1892 to 1894 four prominent members of the movement, Von Zech, Bryan, Rogers and Adamson, tried to infiltrate ideas that Russell disagreed with.
Eventually they conspired against him and tried to undermine his influence amongst the Bible Students. Russell was forced to rebuke them in a specially printed ninety-page booklet appropriately called A Conspiracy Exposed. This was published in 1894. Another 'revolt' exposed in 1911 involved a group of very influential Bible Students including the Vice-President of the Society-J.H.Giesey, Branch Leader E.C. Hennings and Russell's private secretary A.E.Williamson.The last named left the movement with his supporters after having charged Russell with caressing sisters l42
Apart from this internal opposition, Russell's enemies outside the movement were only too glad to attack him on personal grounds. They usually accused Russell of using the Bible Students to sell his literature so that he could make a big profit. In 1906, however, Russell suffered an embarrassing and humiliating experience that was seized upon by his enemies to discredit him in the eyes of his followers and the rest of the world. His wife was the cause of the scandal. In the early years of marriage Maria Frances Russell had been an able and loyal supporter of her husband. She had often written articles for the Watch Tower. Russell claimed that she desired more control in the running of the magazine and this, and her interest in women's suffrage, led to an estrangement.
In Zion's Watch Tower for 15th July 1906 Russell explained to his readers his side of the story - he had heard so many malicious rumours and received so many enquiring letters that he felt obliged to do this. He said that his wife had tried to take over the running of the magazine and had insisted that her articles be printed in it. Russell refused and he discontinued her as Associate Editor in 1896. In 1897 Mrs. Russell (influenced, so Russell thought, by her female relatives) took active steps to try to usurp him; at first she tried to win over two local brothers to her side by attacking Pastor Russell, and when this failed she began organising separate meetings for the sisters in the ecclesias. She stirred up opposition against her husband at these meetings. On 5th September 1897 a meeting of Elders was convened to investigate the sisters' complaints - and Mrs. Russell was publicly reproved. She finally separated from her husband in 1897 and six years later she filed an application in the Court of Common Pleas at Pittsburgh for legal separation (a divorce).
Then followed, in April 1906, a much publicised and sensationalised court case.
Mrs. Russell's plea was based on the charge of mental cruelty and ultimately this was the reason the jury decided in her favour. Unfortunately, however, she tried to suggest that Pastor Russell's behaviour towards the opposite sex was compromising. She quoted numerous trivial instances which were open to a far more reasonable interpretation - cases where the Pastor had comforted female members of the household and so on. No account was taken of these in the open court. Worse than this, however, were her allegations concerning the Pastor and their adopted daughter, Rose Ball. She alleged that 'the Pastor had remarked to the girl slyly: "I am like a jellyfish; I float around here and there. I touch this one and that one, and if she responds I take her to me, and if not I float on to others.""43 Pastor Russell denied having said such a thing and Mrs. Russell admitted to her own lawyer that she did not mean that her husband committed adultery! H. H. Stroup summed up the case as follows:
Mrs. Russell brought suit for divorce on four grounds: 'That his conceit, egotism, and domination were such as to make life intolerable to any sensitive woman; that his conduct in relation to other women was improper; that on one occasion he was silent to his wife for four weeks and only communicated with her by letters of a reproachful character; and that he sought by most despicable means to isolate his wife from society, and designed to get her pronounced insane in order to put her away.' In reviewing the case today, an observer may perceive that the evidence of the prosecution was not as conclusive as the jury considered it to be. . . . Most of the testimony was highly suggestive but never conclusive. Additional evidence indicates that Mrs. Russell was generally suspicious of her husband's relations with other women and that at some point in their relationship she failed to understand completely the religiously inspired person's disregard for appearances.44
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